Media Vocabulary

Binary Opposites:
A pair of related terms or concepts that are opposite in meaning.

Diegetic/Non-Diegetic:

Diegetic – sounds that both the characters and the audience can hear. They are involved within the scene. Eg a bell ringing.

Non-Diegetic – Sounds with are in the background so the characters cannot hear them. They can create an atmosphere or build tension etc. Eg background music.

Hegemony:

Another way to say stereotypes within a certain genre or representational issue. Eg the hegemonic norm that women are seen as a sexual symbol.

Ideology:

An ideology is a world view, a system of values, attitudes and beliefs which an individual, group or society holds to be true or important; these are shared by a culture or society about how that society should function.

Intertextuality:

The relationship between texts, especially literary ones. The shaping of texts’ meanings by other texts.

Iconography:

Symbolic representation, especially the conventional meanings attached to an image or images.

Preferred Reading:
This is when audiences respond to the product the way media producers want/expect them to.

Oppositional Reading:

This is when the audience are in complete disagreement with the product’s message or setting.

Archetype:

A universal type or model of character that is found in many different texts, e.g. ingenue, anti-hero, wise old woman, hero-as-lover, hero-as-warrior, shadow trickster, mentor, loyal friend, temptress.

Stereotype:

Stereotypes are negative (usually) representations of people that rely on preconceived ideas about the group that person is perceived as belonging to. It is assumed that an individual shares personal characteristics with other members of that group eg blondes are all stupid, accountants are all boring.

Verisimilitude:

The appearance of being true or real.

High Key Lighting:

High-key lighting is a style of lighting for film, television, or photography that aims to reduce the lighting ratio present in the scene. This was originally done partly for technological reasons, since early film and television did not deal well with high contrast ratios, but now is used to suggest an upbeat mood.

Low Key Lighting:

Low-key lighting is a style of lighting for photography, film or television. It is a necessary element in creating a chiaroscuro effect. Traditional photographic lighting, three-point lighting uses a key light, a fill light, and a back light for illumination.

Contrapuntal Sound:

Composed of two or more relatively independent melodies sounded together.

Ambient Sound:

Ambient sound (AKA ambient audio, ambience, atmosphere, atmos or background noise) means the background sounds which are present in a scene or location. Common ambient sounds include wind, water, birds, crowds, office noises, traffic, etc.

Foley:

Relating to or concerned with the addition of recorded sound effects after the shooting of a film.

Dramatic Irony:

Irony that is inherent in speeches or a situation of a drama and is understood by the audience but not grasped by the characters in the play.

Ellipsis:

The narrative device of omitting a portion of the sequence of events, allowing the reader to fill in the narrative gaps. Aside from its literary use, the ellipsis has a counterpart in film production. It is there to suggest an action by simply showing what happens before and after what is observed. The vast majority of films use ellipses to clear actions that add nothing to the narrative. Beyond these "convenience" ellipses, ellipses are also used to advance the story.

Propp’s Character Theory:

Vladimir Propp developed a character theory for studying media texts and productions, which indicates that there were 7 broad character types in the 100 tales he analysed, which could be applied to other media:

·         The villain (struggles against the hero)

·         The donor (prepares the hero or gives the hero some magical object)

·         The (magical) helper (helps the hero in the quest)

·         The princess (person the hero marries, often sought for during the narrative)

·         The false hero (perceived as good character in beginning but emerges as evil)

·         The dispatcher (character who makes the lack known and sends the hero off)

·         The hero [AKA victim/seeker/paladin/winner, reacts to the donor, weds the princess

Todorov’s Narrative theory:

Todorov in 1969 produced a theory which he believed to be able to be applied to any film. He believed that all films followed the same narrative pattern. They all went through stages called the equilibrium, disequilibrium, acknowledgement, solving and again equilibrium. There are five stages the narrative can progress through:

·         A state of equilibrium (All is as it should be.)

·         A disruption of that order by an event.

·         A recognition that the disorder has occurred.

·         An attempt to repair the damage of the disruption.

·         A return or restoration of a NEW equilibrium

Restricted Narrative:

Story presented via one character in particular. Mystery or surprise may be the effect of this form of narration.

Omniscient Narrative:

Story presented through a number of characters (the audience knows more than any one character). Suspense may be the effect.

Linear Narrative:

Linear narratives follow a straight line — starting at the beginning, moving to the middle and proceeding to the end of the story.

Episodic Narrative:

An "episodic narrative" is a story that is told through a series of episodes, or segments. A soap opera on television, for instance, is an episodic programme.

Above the Line Costs:

Above-the-line is the list of individuals who guide, influence and hopefully add to the creative direction, process and voice of a given narrative in a film and their related expenditures. These roles include but are not limited to the screenwriter, producer, director and actors.

Below the Line Costs:

Below-the-line crew refers to everybody else including (but not limited to). Eg Assistant Director, Art Director, Line Producer, Location manager, Best Boy Electric.

Diegesis:

A narrative or plot, typically in a film.

Enigma Code:

Enigma codes pose questions to the audience which are then answered shortly after or later on in the film. For example, who is she? Where is she going? Why is she doing that? They're questions enabling the audience to get intrigued with the film and wanting to find out the answers to these questions, therefore watching more of it. Enigma codes entice the audience to watch the rest of the film as they're curious as to what will happen next; they also help to move on the narrative.

Continuity Editing:

Continuity editing is the predominant style of film editing and video editing in the post-production process of filmmaking of narrative films and television programs. The purpose of continuity editing is to smooth over the inherent discontinuity of the editing process and to establish a logical coherence between shots.

High Concept Film:

High-concept is a type of artistic work that can be easily pitched with a succinctly stated premise. High-concept narratives are typically characterised by an overarching "what if?" scenario that acts as a catalyst for the following events.

Juxtaposition:

The fact of two things being seen or placed close together with contrasting effect.

Key Light:

The main source of light in a photograph or film.

Master Shot:

A master shot is a film recording of an entire dramatized scene, from start to finish, from an angle that keeps all the players in view. It is often a long shot and can sometimes perform a double function as an establishing shot.

Parallel Editing:

Parallel editing is a technique whereby cutting occurs between two or more related actions occurring at the same time in two separate locations or different points in time.

Reaction Shot:

It is a shot which cuts away from the main scene in order to show the reaction of a character to it.

Polysemic:

Is the capacity for a sign (such as a word, phrase, or symbol) to have multiple meanings (that is, multiple semes or sememes and thus multiple senses), usually related by contiguity of meaning within a semantic field.

Synergy:

The interaction or cooperation of two or more organizations, substances, or other agents to produce a combined effect greater than the sum of their separate effects.

Convergence:

The way in which technologies and institutions come together in order to create something new. Cinema is the result of the convergence of photography, moving pictures (the kinetoscope, zoetrope etc), and sound. The iPad represents the convergence of books, TV, maps, the internet and the mobile phone.

Horizontal Integration:

Is a strategy where a company creates or acquires production units for outputs which are alike - either complementary or competitive. One example would be when a company acquires competitors in the same industry doing the same stage of production for the creation of a monopoly.

Vertical Integration:

The combination in one firm of two or more stages of production normally operated by separate firms.

180 Degree Rule:

In film making, the 180-degree rule is a basic guideline regarding the on-screen spatial relationship between a character and another character or object within a scene.

Rule of Thirds:

The rule of thirds is a powerful compositional technique for making photos more interesting and dynamic. It's also perhaps one of the most well-known.

Aesthetics:

The cinematographer, the shots, the angles, lighting and colour symbolism (+ post production).

Arbitrary Signifiers:

Together, the signifier and signified make up the. Sign: the smallest unit of meaning. Anything that can be used to communicate (or to tell a lie). Symbolic (arbitrary) signs: signs where the relation between signifier and signified is purely conventional and culturally specific, e.g., most words.

Codes:

A system of signs which can be decoded to create meaning.

·         Technical codes - all to do with the way a text is technically constructed - camera angles, framing, typography etc

·         Verbal codes - everything to do with language -either written or spoken

·         Symbolic codes - codes that can be decoded on a mainly connotational level - all the things which draw upon our experience and understanding of other media texts, our cultural frame of reference.

Frame Composition:

In cinematography, composition refers to the frame of the image and how the elements of the mise-en-scène appear in it. Composition guidelines must be observed when telling stories visually, as in filmmaking.

Conglomerate:

A media conglomerate, media group or media institution is a company that owns large numbers of companies in various mass media such as television, radio, publishing, movies, and the Internet.

Connotation:

Way in which meaning is created — Connote = meaning by association, the deeper meaning (e.g. red connotes anger, passion, love, danger).

Cultural Codes:

A system of signs whose meaning is shared by members of a culture, eg dress/costume, gesture, mise-en-scene, intertextual reference. (Often associated with cultural assumptions.)

Effects Model:

A theory that relates how stories published in the media influence or amplify current trends. Borrowers or investors will read an article and be influenced to act quickly on the news. The media effect is often seen in the mortgage market, when prepayment rates can sharply increase following specific news stories.

Signifiers – Iconic, Indexical, Symbolic:

A sign's physical form (such as a sound, printed word, or image) as distinct from its meaning.

Editing Key Terms

Media Key Terms

Camera movement:

Pans:

A movement which scans a scene horizontally.

Tilts:

A movement which scans a scene vertically, otherwise similar to a pan.

Dolly Shots:

Sometimes called TRUCKING or TRACKING shots. The camera is placed on a moving vehicle and moves alongside the action, generally following a moving figure or object.

Crane Shots:

Basically, dolly-shots-in-the-air. A crane (or jib), is a large, heavy piece of equipment, but is a useful way of moving a camera - it can move up, down, left, right, swooping in on action or moving diagonally out of it. The camera operator and camera are counter-balanced by a heavy weight, and trust their safety to a skilled crane/jib operator.

Zoom Lenses:

A zoom lens contains a mechanism that changes the magnification of an image. On a still camera, this means that the photographer can get a 'close up' shot while still being some distance from the subject. A video zoom lens can change the position of the audience, either very quickly (a smash zoom) or slowly, without moving the camera an inch, thus saving a lot of time and trouble.

 

Shot Length:

Extreme long shot:

This can be taken from as much as a quarter of a mile away, and is generally used as a scene-setting, establishing shot. It normally shows an EXTERIOR, eg the outside of a building, or a landscape. There will be very little detail visible in the shot, it's meant to give a general impression rather than specific information.

Long Shot:

Generally one which shows the image as approximately "life" size ie corresponding to the real distance between the audience and the screen in a cinema (the figure of a man would appear as six feet tall). This category includes the FULL SHOT showing the entire human body, with the head near the top of the frame and the feet near the bottom. While the focus is on characters, plenty of background detail still emerges.

Medium Shot:

Contains a figure from the knees/waist up and is normally used for dialogue scenes, or to show some detail of action. Background detail is minimal, probably because location has been established earlier in the scene - the audience already know where they are and now want to focus on dialogue and character interaction.

Two Shot:

Containing two figures from the waist up.                             

Three Shot:

Contains 3 figures.

Over the Shoulder Shot:
Positions the camera behind one figure, revealing the other figure, and part of the first figure's back, head and shoulder.

Close-Up:

This shows very little background, and concentrates on either a face, or a specific detail of mise en scène. Everything else is just a blur in the background. This shot magnifies the object and shows the importance of things, be it words written on paper, or the expression on someone's face.

Extreme Close-Up:

As its name suggests, an extreme version of the close up, generally magnifying beyond what the human eye would experience in reality. An extreme close-up of a face, for instance, would show only the mouth or eyes, with no background detail whatsoever. This is a very artificial shot, and can be used for dramatic effect.

Question 2 (mock re-write)

The production and distribution is essential to a film’s success. When producing a film there are many key factors that can determine the outcome of the film such as star power, technology, location, budget and more. Furthermore, are distribution factors like the marketing strategies, convergence and synergy to name a few, which will have a significant impact on a films global success or not.

One of the major elements to a films production and distribution is budget. Budget allows a film to have the ability for the latest technology, various locations, Hollywood movie actors etc. During production conglomerate films such as the film ‘Catching Fire’ have huge budgets to spend on above and below the line costs. Above the line being the actors, producers, directors etc and below the line costs being hair stylists, sound engineer, camera operator and more. Hollywood films have more money to spend on these costs for example Catching Fire had a budget of $130 million and also $10 million just for visual effects. This large budget allows them to have access to the latest and best technology. These big films are using new innovation technology, just like Catching Fire used an IMAX msm9802 camera for filming. This technology can be used as a demographic movement, or selling point for them film. Some films will even use technology a though it is its own character in the film. On the other hand, smaller films have inevitable smaller budgets for example the film ‘About Time’ only had a budget of £12 million, and therefore did not have the same technological advances as larger films. About Time used a simple Arri Alexa camera. Moreover, they will use previous/older technology that was good a few years ago but is now cheaper to get hold of.

In addition to the concept of budget is star power. This can be a major selling point for a film as large films like Catching Fire can get hold of big Hollywood actor such as Jennifer Lawrence, who will automatically attract people to the film. You can guarantee and audience with star power no matter what the film. However, smaller films cannot afford to pay well-known actors to star in their films. In addition to star power is the previous history of the film. Films such as Catching Fire are based on very popular, best seller books, meaning that they will automatically have a built in fan base due to people who liked the book. In addition, the film Catching Fire is a sequel so there would be a hype for the film before it has even been produced as it is so in demand. Also in the area of budget is location, and how high concept films can afford to fly cast and crew to different locations around the world to film in, just like catching fire which filmed in places like Hawaii and America and more. Juxtaposing with low concept films like About Time which filmed only in Cornwall and London, as they cannot afford to fly cast and crew out to other locations.

In terms of the distribution aspect of films and again budget having an impact on this, conglomerates can afford to pay for lots of distribution techniques. Catching fire, for example, could reach many people as they could afford to distribute the film globally by Lionsgate; the film was played in over 4,500 cinema screens just in the US alone, whilst in the cinema Catching Fire was not competing against other films as it was the most popular film out at that time. Moreover, the film had lots of long TV spots, such as interviews and behind the scene snippets playing on television, this is due to the film being very popular before production and because it has the money to pay for these things unlike small films such as About Time which stuck to the cheaper forms of distribution and generally only distributed in a few places. Furthermore, British small films can generally not afford the same amount of distribution as some big American films, that is hoping they are lucky enough to find a distributor in the first place. Big films will be in early talk with distributors possibly even before production, where as other films will produce the film and ask and hope that someone will distribute it.  

Under the branch of distribution is advertisement and marketing, so once the production is over, they have to use strategies to sell the film to the population through advertisements. Large movies such as Catching Fire spent over $45 million on advertisement just in the USA. They utilised bus shelters, newspapers, radio shows, train stations etc. most of these means of advertisement will include a poster of the film, most likely with the main character/star on it, in Catching Fire’s case it have Jennifer Lawrence playing ‘Katniss’ on the poster, immediately attracting people due to star power and the film in general. 

Downton Abbey Clip (mock re-write)

In this clip taken from the television show Downton Abbey mise en scene, sound, camera and editing are used to portray the representation issue of class and status. The extract follows the general hegemonic norms of status divide in that era.

The first thing the audience sees is an establishing shot of a young boy riding his bike down a long pathway up to an opulent and grand mansion. The camera is purposely tracking to make it as though we are riding the bike with the boy into the shot; the audience is on the same level as the boy as we are invited into the shot with him. The ease of the long camera shots imply that that it is a common thing that he does every day. Additionally, the simple and dull clothes he is wearing is representative of the lower class. This idea of lower status is further highlighted by the avoidance of focusing the camera on the boy’s face, suggesting that maybe he is not important enough.

The cross cut to the scene of a woman waking up in a cosy room. There is very low key lighting in the shot creating a calm and warm environment. Moreover, this shot juxtaposes her comfort with the paper boy’s early and scheduled life. Within the scene there is a medium, profile shot of the woman looking out the window at the boy riding along. The high angle, bird’s eye view shot of the boy makes it seem like she is literally and metaphorically looking down on him, as though she is in a higher class and position, proposing the binary opposites between classes. In addition the point of view of this shot is as though we are looking at the boy from the woman’s perspective due to the eye-line match, whilst the previous shot was suggested that we are looking through the boy’s point of view. Furthermore, the smoothness of the wide shot and the ease at which the boy rides in and out of the frame highlights the normality of the situation of him riding to the mansion.

Suddenly, the diegetic sound becomes significantly louder as it cuts to a bell ringing of which the sound is amplified to give the bell importance, as well as the low angle, close up of the bell. This quick shot signifies that the bell is of high priority as it is what the higher class use to signal the lower class, this suggests that the poor people wait on the rich, emphasising class divide. Once the bell has been rang the staff says ‘here they go again’ which further creates the idea that they wait on the upper class. In addition, there is lots of talking in the scene, this loud diegetic sound symbolises how busy the environment that they are in is, as well as the use of many interrupted shots denoting that the kitchen is a very hectic place to be working in. This also creates the idea that the editing of the shot is purposely done so we do not have lengthy shots of the staff because they are not that important. Additionally, in the establishing shot of the kitchen, the director positions the camera so it is level with the table proposing the idea that we are sitting at the table and are on the same class level as the staff. The clothes that the staff wear is maid and butler attire so it is easy to distinguish between the upper and lower class.

The scene of the boy ironing the newspaper is included in the clip as it is the first time the clip focuses on the notion of the titanic. The slightly low angled, close up of the boy looking at the newspaper is of great importance of the whole thing revolving around the titanic. In compliance with this newspaper scene a butler tells the boy to iron a section first providing him with power in the situation, but also making sure they do this for the lord as he has a higher position in the class hierarchy. Moreover, when talking about the Titanic one staff member says ‘nothing in life is sure’ this statement relates the two classes together as it goes for both upper and lower.

Furthermore, the next scene of the lord walking down a grand staircase conforms to a higher class hegemonic norm. The camera is directed to use tracking/pulling shots of the lord walking, as well as the stedicam used to follow the lord to create a clam and steady environment that is not hectic, juxtaposing with the business of the kitchen. The director uses long, slow shots to both emphasise the peacefulness of the scene, but also to create more focus on the lord’s significance and authority. In terms of editing, we see basic continuity editing as the scene only uses two very long shots, this shows that the Lord can command the shot as the camera is directed to follow him around, this creates a point of view shot as it is as if we are waiting for the Lord to walk down the stairs. Moreover, the clothes he is wearing connotates wealth and power, as they are very smart and look expensive, just like the use of rich gold and red colours in the set design sub textually implying a sense of wealth. Additionally, the non-diegetic, classical music further denotes a calm and wealthy environment, as classical music can be representative of affluence.